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Jojoba: A Promising New Crop – Part 3 of 3
| By pinoyfarmer | August 4, 2007 |  |
9 Research Needs
Basic research, the underpinning for the crop’s future development, deserves greater support. Government agencies, foundations, corporations, and individuals who fund agricultural research should support jojoba studies. Some particular needs are listed below.
Agronomic Research
Agricultural Practices
Jojoba has demonstrated a favorable response to many of the practices and techniques currently used in agriculture, but research is needed to understand its unique properties that can be manipulated to coax the crop to reach its fullest potential. Among agronomic questions that cannot be readily answered with assurance are:
· What plant spacing is best?
· What ratio of females to males is best?
· When is the best time to irrigate, and how much should be applied?
· What is the best method to control weeds?
· What are jojoba’s fertilization requirements?
· When is the best time to prune? How little, how much, and what part of the plant to prune?
· What criterion should be the basis for selecting superior plants?
· What is the best way to harvest: By hand? By machine? And what type of harvester: Over-the-row? Vacuum?
· What is the relationship between a superior plant at a young age and long-term performance?
All these questions point to valuable areas for research and testing.
Plant Selection
It is vital to find and replicate quality jojoba specimens. They will produce plantations that yield faster and several times higher than has
been possible heretofore. In making selections among different jojoba plants, the most significant yield components to consider are:
· Seed production at every node;
· Large seed size;
· High oil content in the seed;
· Late flowering (to escape frost damage);
· Precocity (for instance, starting seed production before the third year);
· Consistent production from year to year; and
· Upright growth habit (for easy harvesting).
To combine all these features in one superior variety will require years of persistent selection and testing. The recent availability of vegetative propagation, however, makes possible its more rapid accomplishment. It is desirable to measure the average annual yield of oil over as many years as possible before massively propagating any clone.
Some particular points of plant selection follow.
Reducing Plant Size. At present, the optimal biomass for maximum seed production is unknown. However, vegetative growth should be reduced as much as possible without severely reducing seed production. Dwarf varieties have less nutritional demand, they allow more plants to be grown per acre, and they can make harvesting easier.
Synchronizing Flowering. Many generations of breeding have gone into making conventional crops flower uniformly. All wheat plants, for example, flower within a few days of each other in many environments. Because most jojoba plantations have been established using heterogeneous seed, flowering is not synchronized. To get seeds maturing at the same time would be an important benefit to a grower. Research should focus on genetic traits as well as on management techniques. The goal should be to develop high-yielding clones that ripen uniformly and can be harvested in one pass.
Selecting Superior Males. So far, there has been little selection of male plants. Current types are variable: some have short flowering seasons, others long. To select male plants that produce an abundance of flowers, shed pollen over a long period, and result in superior seeds (with high oil content, for example) is a particular research need. In selecting superior males, some criteria to look for are: large clusters of flowers; tallness (so that the pollen disseminates well), plants whose pollen has long viability, and plants that produce pollen at the time when females are receptive.
Increasing Oil Content. It is important to select plants with a high percentage of oil in the seeds. The average oil content is 50 percent – a substantial figure – but seeds with 63 percent oil have been discovered. A diligent improvement project (which would be facilitated by a simple method for testing oil content) could almost certainly boost the oil content of the plantation seeds by 20 percent. This is important because the target for all growers, after all, should be not the seed yield per acre, but the oil yield per acre.
Harvesting
The question of how to harvest jojoba mechanically is a pressing one. This is not strictly an engineering challenge: the harvest’s outcome depends on the plant and machine fitting together. A clone that may yield exceptionally may be prohibitively expensive to harvest. For example, some have short internodes and are tight bushes, and a mechanized picker requires a somewhat open bush that its “fingers” can comb through. (The density of the bush is less important if the seed is to be swept or sucked off the ground.)
Features that fit a plant to harvesting by picker are:
· Upright growth with a clear base for access;
· Maximal density for high yields, but not too dense for efficient picking;
· Uniform timing of female flower receptivity;
· Annually consistent female receptivity;
· Uniform maturity of seeds on each selected plant;
· Optimal fruit removal (requires assessment of natural dehiscence and the force needed to
shake seeds off);
· Flexible limbs that are not easily damaged by harvesters; and
· Minimal root and stem suckering (to keep open access to the base of the plants).
Combating Desertification
Claims have been made that jojoba has potential for overcoming “desert creep.” This possibility deserves to be explored. In its favor, jojoba has a hardy, drought-tolerant nature. More importantly, it produces a high-value product in drylands, thus giving inhabitants an incentive to stay “on the farm” and protect their land from the advancing desert creep by growing other species that may halt the threatening sand dunes.
Product Research
Jojoba offers many areas for chemists and industrial researchers to explore. As noted previously, the oil has been transformed into at least 50 derivatives that seem to have commercial utility. This wealth of new compounds deserves careful evaluation and development. (Indeed, the whole topic of wax esters, whether they be from jojoba, from fish oils, or from synthesized materials, deserves much greater recognition from chemists. Useful first steps would be a comprehensive review paper, a symposium, or a book devoted to wax esters)
A few broad research subjects are highlighted here.
Lubricants
Qualification Testing. Jojoba oil has performed exceedingly well in small-scale diagnostic lubricant tests. It has not yet, however, been assessed in documented, full-scale trials conducted in actual operating equipment and compared against controls. This is a vital need.
Full qualification trials will take several years because the steps include formulating blends for different purposes, putting them into operating engines, and measuring performance features such as engine output, heat build-up, oil stability, and performance life (A paper identifying the requirements for completely evaluating jojoba Oil as a lubricant is available from R. M. Estefan, Southwest Research Institute, 6220 Culebra Road, San Antonio, Texas 78284, USA).
The cost for such an evaluation would be high: perhaps $250,000 for formulating and bench-testing blends, and perhaps $500,000 for in-service testing. But until this is done, uncertainty over jojoba oil’s potential in the lubrication industry will remain. And without published evaluations that are accepted by the automotive industry, the oil cannot penetrate broad markets (For example, in most cases the vehicle manufacturer’s approve, will be required if the vehicle’s warranty is not to be voided).
Overcoming the High Pour Point. The fact that jojoba oil tends to solidify in cool weather is a particular problem if it is to be used as a base stock in the automotive industry in temperate-zone countries. Therefore, a particular research need is to find uses in which this is not a concern, or to lower the point at which the oil thickens. This latter might be tackled from the plant end – there are indications, for example, that growing jojoba in hot regions produces oil of lower molecular weight. It might also be tackled from the chemical end – jojoba oil can be trans-esterified with different acids and alcohols to produce many shorter chain esters with widely different freezing points and viscosities.
The high pour point is a problem mainly if the oil is to be used as a base stock. If used as an additive, it is unlikely to be a serious concern.
erivatives as Lubricants. The straight oil has excellent metal-wetting properties and gives metal a slippery surface. The sulfurized oil is valuable at high temperatures and pressures, which create metal-sulfur links that chemically bond the jojoba molecule to the metal surface. But other derivatives with good lubricating qualities are also likely to be found. Adding dimercaptothiadiazole to the jojoba molecule, for instance, reduces the (already extremely good) coefficient of friction by 20 percent, and the product protects copper against corrosion at the same time (Information from P. Landis).
Cutting Oils. Jojoba oil might find a particular niche in cutting fluids that are used to cool, lubricate, prevent rust, and flush away chips in metal-working machines. Because these emulsions are aqueous and are continuously recycled, they grow bacteria and fungi, and because they get on workers’ hands, even slightly toxic preservatives cannot be added. Jojoba, because it is largely resistant to microbial attack, may be of particular benefit in this application.
Jet Engine Lubricants. Its high-temperature stability and excellent viscosity index suggest the possibility of jojoba oil’s use as an additive in jet engine lubricants. To assess this is an important research need. Its thermal and oxidative stability, as well as its decomposition products, would have to be analyzed.
Magnetic Memory Media Lubricants. The stable ester structure of jojoba oil might make it suitable as a lubricant for reducing frictional wear in floppy discs, digital tape, audio tape, magnetizable film, and other magnetic memory media.
Sperm oil is (or has been) widely used as an internal lubricant in audio and video recording tapes to reduce wear on the tape itself and on the recording/playback heads. With the demise of sperm oil, this is another use for which jojoba should be tested.
High-Temperature Oils
Jojoba oil’s viscosity index is almost twice that of most petroleum oils. Although there is some disagreement over the actual number, it is in the range of 190 to 230, whereas the mineral oils are in the range of 90 to 100. Viscosity index is a measure of a liquid’s change in viscosity with changing temperature. As they get hot, liquids with lower indexes get thinner than those with higher indexes. Normally an increase in viscosity index of just two or three points means a big improvement in the lubricating quality of an oil as it heats up. Jojoba oil with a viscosity index 100 points higher than average could boost low-grade oils even in small amounts. This possibility should excite the interest of all industries that want an oil to maintain its viscosity as it is heated.
Fermentations
Scores of widely used fermentations suffer from excessive foaming. Sperm oil was once commonly used to overcome this problem, but in its absence silicone oil or vegetable oils are used. Jojoba oil deserves investigation because it seems to have particular advantages over these. Unlike silicone oil it is biodegradable and should not build up a gummy layer inside the fermentation vessels and pipes. On the other hand, it is less biodegradable than conventional vegetable oils and is probably largely inert to most of the fermentation organisms. Thus it could be more effective than the triglyceride oils. Fermentations producing antibiotics, steroids, alcohol, and citric acid are some in which jojoba oil deserves testing as an antifoam.
Medicinal Effects
Possible Anti-Inflammatory Effects. Preliminary indications suggest that jojoba oil has beneficial effects on acute and chronic inflammation of the skin. The possibility that jojoba oil could be beneficial in the treatment of sunburn and perhaps more serious burns should be investigated.
The oil is absorbed into skin through secondary structures such as hair follicles (see picture page 51). Further research is needed into this percutaneous absorption, and particularly its effects on the inflammatory response. The research could involve in-vitro assays to look at the effects on neutrophils and the blastic response, as well as invivo assays on animals and humans.
Possible Antimicrobial Effects. Jojoba oil has shown antimicrobial effects in-vitro, and research to investigate its ability to counteract acute and chronic skin and other infections is warranted.
A particularly interesting research area is to test jojoba oil’s effects on tuberculosis, leprosy, and brucellosis. The bacteria causing these diseases shelter inside “cocoons” of wax and are difficult to reach with antibiotics. (The current treatment for TB, for instance, requires that patients take medication each day for a year or more). The waxes are made up of esters whose chemical structure is like that of jojoba oil, although their chain lengths are much longer. Because of the chemical similarity, it seems possible that the liquid jojoba oil could help dissolve the solid wax coatings around the bacilli. An antibiotic used with jojoba as a “penetrating oil” might be a particularly effective combination. This suggestion is highly speculative, but in view of the widespread nature of these diseases, and their relative resistance to attack, the possibility deserves at least preliminary assessment.
Food
The idea of using jojoba oil as a low-calorie oil for human consumption is tantalizing. Potentially, it is the largest market of all for jojoba. Both the oil and the roasted seeds have long been eaten by Indians in the Sonoran Desert region, but extensive trials are necessary before jojoba can be approved for use as a modern foodstuff for sale to the general public.
So far, experiments in rats have shown no fundamental barriers to the concept of using jojoba oil as a foodstuff, but much more basic research is needed before the Food and Drug Administration or its equivalent overseas will authorize its use. This research should be carried out, but to complete it will take at least two-and-a-half years of concentrated research and an expenditure of an estimated $2.5 million, and there is no guarantee that some health hazard won’t be uncovered.
Appendixes
Appendix A
Jojoba Outside North America
Today, the largest jojoba plantations are in the United States, but more and more countries are establishing trial plots or growing the crop commercially. Sizable plantations are under cultivation in Australia, Brazil, Costa Rica, Israel, Mexico, South Africa, and a few other nations. Experimental plots exist in several dozen more. Below is a rough overview of those that have been most widely reported. This is no more than a passing snapshot of the scene in 1984-1985; with so much planting going on, as well as the natural failures of some trials, no single statement can remain current for long.
These experiences, however small, are significant beyond their size. From such early plantings, nations can get an inkling of how well the crop may fare within their borders. Potential investors can observe the variability inherent in jojoba propagated by seed. And growers are likely to discover high-yielding plants with particular adaptability to local conditions. Thus, plantings like these could be the nucleus for a “second generation” of superior plants. If vegetatively propagated, quality specimens of this kind will much increase the likelihood of bringing successful jojoba farming to the region.
Indeed, any area proposing to begin jojoba production should establish seeded plots for observation, monitoring, and germplasm selection. In most cases, these will not produce profitable amounts of oil for large-scale commerce, but they are a vital foundation for building a flourishing jojoba-growing industry.
Latin America
Mexico
Extensive harvesting of the native jojoba stands of Baja California and the state of Sonora in northwestern Mexico began in the 1970s. The large quantities of seed gathered from these wild shrubs has made Mexico the world’s principal producer of jojoba oil. Jojoba oil extraction companies have been established at Hermosillo, Ensenada, Caborca, and other centers. Most of the product is exported to Japan, but five different brands of jojoba cosmetics are marketed in Mexico.
After 12 years of research on cultivation, harvesting, extraction, and commercialization of seed and oil, Mexico has been able to establish the foundation of a jojoba-based industry. About 2,500 acres (1,000 hectares) of private jojoba farms have become the early proving grounds for the crop. In most areas of northwestern Mexico, the plants are growing well in both dry-farmed and irrigated areas.
Near Hermosillo, the captial of Sonora, some 3.5-year-old plants are 5-6 feet (1.5-2 m) tall and are bearing 50-80 pounds of seed per acre (60-80 kg per hectare). Reportedly, they have required neither pesticides nor fertilization, and some have not been irrigated (after initial establishment), although rainfall in the area is only 8 inches (200 mm) and summer temperatures reach 120°F (49°C).
Costa Rica
Several commercial plantations have been started in Costa Rica. The first sites selected were in the central highlands, where both soils and climate seem unlikely for good jojoba production. However, after some setbacks the plants are now reported to be growing satisfactorily. Newer plantings in the arid lowlands of Guanacaste province are showing good growth and set seed for the first time in 1984.
Curacao
A few plants are reportedly thriving and bearing well on this arid Caribbean island.
Peru
An experimental plantation has been installed in an arid area near Ica.
Chile
To foster reforestation, the Chilean government provides substantial financial benefits to tree planters; it also has huge amounts of bare, dry land where rainfall is insufficient for conventional crops. This has stimulated considerable experimentation with jojoba.
Investigations were initiated in 1977 through the National Institute of Agricultural Investigations (INIA), the National Forestry Corporation (CONAF), the University of Chile, The Corporacion de Fomento de la Produccion (CORFO – which has 15 hectares or 37 acres in 12 different locations), Fundacion Chile, and several private organizations. The Forestry Department has planted experimental plots as well.
Beyond these experiments and trials, there are 300 acres (120 hectares) of commercial plantations. The oldest is five years old and is in the Camarones Valley in the arid north (latitude 19°S.), where the plant is growing well.
Argentina
The climate of northwestern Argentina is similar to that of the Sonoran Desert. Experimental plantings of jojoba were first carried out in 1977 and 1978 at Villa Dolores in the province of Cordoba. Subsequent plantings were made in the province of Mendoza and, in 1981, in the province of Tucuman.
At Villa Dolores some impressively productive plants, with dense clusters of seeds, have been discovered. Some 6-year-old plants are each producing 0.8 pounds (350 g) of clean, dry seed per year. Most plots are unirrigated, and the region gets an annual rainfall of 14 inches (350 mm).
A major plantation is being established near Cartamarca.
Paraguay
Trial plantations are being conducted in Paraguay’s Chaco Desert region. One small experimental plot is 6 years old, and the plants are surviving despite receiving no care. Some other plots have 2-year-old plants that are 2 feet (60 cm) high and are setting flowers and seeds, which is faster than in the United States. In 1985, growers are planting 3,200 acres (1,300 hectares) of commercial plantations.
All in all, Paraguayans are hopeful that jojoba can be established as a common crop for the dry Chaco region where little else can be successfully grown.
Brazil
For the arid northeast of Brazil, jojoba is a promising crop. Since 1976, it has performed well in test plots near Fortaleza, Ceara (latitude 4°S). The first experimental plot was sown on the Campus do Pici, of the Federal University of Ceara in Fortaleza. Between 1977 and 1980, additional small plots were installed in surrounding areas. There are now about 250 acres (100 hectares) of experimental sites throughout Ceara State.
In Fortaleza, some 6- and 7-year-old plants, grown with no irrigation, have reached heights of almost 10 feet (3 m). Some are producing seed in the third year. However, the area’s high humidity causes outbreaks of fungal disease in the rainy season.
This work was pioneered by the Federal University of Ceara, but corporations and private individuals are now getting involved. In 1982 about 3,000 acres (1,200 hectares) of commercial plantations were established – some unirrigated, and many interplanted with cowpea, cassava, and cotton in the rainy season.
In the northern part of the state of Minas Gerais and the southern part of Bahia, a private company has recently initiated plantations covering more than 2,500 acres (1,000 hectares).
Africa
Sudan
Sudan has become a leader in introducing jojoba to Africa. Test plots are scattered across the arid northern half of the country, some of them sites with furnacelike heat, desiccating winds, blowing sand, and almost no rainfall. Jojoba has survived all these adversities, although most of the plants have received at least modest irrigation. The areas vary from 3 to 5 acres (1.2-2 hectares) and are located at Dongola, Erkowit, Hudeida, El Rawakeeb, Bara, and Sag el Naam.
This successful establishment is encouraging, especially as the latitude (about 17°N) is so different from that of the plant’s native habitat. But survival is not enough: it is jojoba seed that is the commercial goal, and the plants have formed seed at only two locations as yet, notably at Erkowit, a barren upland area not far from the Red Sea.
Although the production has so far been limited, Sudan’s early success in obtaining seed from the crop indicates that jojoba might have a significant commercial future elsewhere in the Middle East and the Sahelian zone of Africa.
Kenya
Jojoba was first planted in Kenya in 1977, and today, small trial plantings are scattered in various research stations. For example, some seedlings are growing well near Lake Turkana. A private farm near Voi has 100 acres (40 hectares) planted with seed from California.
Tanzania
Small trial plantations near Moshe and Dodoma have shown that the plant can survive in Tanzania.
Zimbabwe
In 1980, the Horticultural Investigation Centre of Zimbabwe established nine experimental plots in areas of differing climate and soil, but mainly concentrated in areas with rainfall under 24 inches (600 mm) per year.
Although commercial plantings have not yet been undertaken, some of the plants in the southern part of the country – in the low veld – look promising enough for economic production.
Botswana
There is some interest in jojoba in Botswana, especially for tribal and communal lands, but so far, few plants have actually been grown. Vast areas of the country appear suitable for the crop, but trials are necessary to judge the plant’s adaptability more accurately.
South Africa
In the late 1970s, the South African Department of Agriculture and Fisheries sent seeds to experiment stations in various parts of the country. Also, trial batches of seed were sent by private enthusiasts to farms all over South Africa. Those planted at Oudtshoorn, situated in the little Karoo, and those in the hot, dry northern Transvaal (grown with irrigation) have done well. At one place near Cape Town, the bushes grew well for four years and suddenly all died, apparently because of a rise in the water table, which flooded the roots.
The first commercial plantings of jojoba were made in 1979, 1980, and 1981. They are all in the Duineveld region, east of Cape Town, and total 850 acres (340 hectares). Moles, deer, and rabbits have caused problems in jojoba plantings in some areas.
Namibia
Jojoba seedlings have been planted in Otjiwarongo. Reportedly, they are doing exceptionally well.
Senegal
A few rows of jojoba plants are surviving with little care and no irrigation in a 23-inch (580 mm) annual rainfall zone at the forestry research station near Bandia.
Morocco
A few plants grown successfully at Marrakesh have been transplanted experimentally to regions along Morocco’s southern border.
Other African countries expressing interest in planting jojoba include Algeria, Benin, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Chad, Djibouti, Egypt, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Somalia, and The Gambia.
Middle East
Israel
The harsh environment of the Negev Desert resembles that of jojoba’s homeland, and Israeli scientists have been studying jojoba since the late 1950s.
They were the first outside North America to try growing the crop on a relatively large scale, and Israel currently has one of the most significant research programs on jojoba. More than 20 researchers from the Ben-Gurion University of the Negev have studied many aspects of its agronomy and product development.
Much of the early planting in Israel was in experimental plots, aimed at developing and selecting superior plants for large commercial plantations. Between 1977 and 1980, about 200 acres (80 hectares) of jojoba were established for commercial purposes in Hatzerim near Beer-Sheva and in the northern Negev Desert. Today, 30 private jojoba growers in Israel have planted about 1,000 acres (400 hectares) in areas from the driest southern part of the Negev Desert to the verdant shores of the Sea of Galilee in the north.
Most of these areas have been directly sown with seed selected from high-producing local plants. Small areas were planted with vegetatively propagated material. All plantings apply trickle irrigation, employing fresh, sewage, or brackish water. Commercial harvests have already been made in the oldest plantations. Some irrigated and fertilized plants have yielded up to 5.5 pounds (2.5 kg) of fruits per plant. There are some notable specimens growing in a saline region near the Dead Sea.
Israel has a commercial facility that offers for export and local use plantlets tissue cultured from Israel’s elite jojoba plants.
Kuwait
A few seedlings planted in the late 1970s, and left without care or watering, indicate that jojoba can survive Kuwait’s temperatures, which reach as high as 122°F (50°C) in the shade.
Saudi Arabia
A few, much-neglected specimens indicate that the plant will survive and set fruit near Riyadh.
Turkey
Since 1982 a few plants have been growing well on hillslopes near Adana in southeastern Turkey where summers are hot and dry.
Other countries of the Middle East that have expressed interest in growing jojoba include United Arab Emirates, Yemen (Sanaa), and Yemen (Aden).
Asia
India
In the late 1970s, about 1,500 seedlings were planted by the Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute at Bhavnagar (Gujarat) on India’s west coast and at Behrampur (Orissa) on the east coast. This was the first organized cultivation in the country, and so far the plants are doing well.
At present, there are many small experimental plantations in places such as the National Botanical Garden at Lucknow and the University of Jodhpur at Jodhpur in the Rajasthan Desert.
At Durgapura in Jaipur, 12,000 plants were established in 1981 and first produced seeds 2 years later. The plants are given several waterings during the summer months and one fertilization a year. There have been problems with a biting insect pest and a Rhizoctonia root rot pathogen, but overall the plants are healthy and vigorous.
Europe
Italy
Some 20 acres (8 hectares) of jojoba have been planted on the southern coast of Sardinia using seed from Arizona. Also, about 70 acres (28 hectares) have been established in Calabria, in the southern region of Italy’s mainland.
Spain
The Spanish government, through the Institute of Nature Conservation, implemented a jojoba project in 1980. Experimental plots were established mainly in the region of Almeria. The plant has also been planted experimentally near Nijar, Seville, Cordoba, and Amarca. There are some plants in the Canary Islands as well.
Reportedly, in all these sites the plants are acclimatizing well. The total area is about 125 acres (50 hectares) and selections of superior plants are being made with a view to beginning a possible industry. A Spanish jojoba association was established in 1984. Jojoba is seen as a possible crop for diversifying agriculture in the south and southeastern parts.
Other European countries planting trial crops are Greece and Cyprus.
Pacific
Australia
Australia has the capacity to be a big contributor to the world supply of jojoba. During the past decade, state departments of agriculture or forestry as well as the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) have set up trial nurseries in all the mainland states and in the Northern Territory. The plants are growing in many different environments. For example, CSIRO’s Division of Plant Industry has established observational nurseries at locations ranging from Moomba in the South Australian desert to Murwillumbah in a subtropical area near the northern coast of New South Wales.
In Canberra, the CSIRO is also studying jojoba in a controlled environment laboratory. The work aims to find out more about rates of photosynthesis and water use, the factors that induce flower development, environmental factors affecting fruit growth, and propagation methods.
Apart from these government-sponsored programs, private entrepreneurs have begun investing in jojoba plantations. These are located in selected areas of New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Victoria, and Western Australia. They range from individual and corporate investments to syndicates. Some plantations have proved highly productive; some have failed. By late 1984 there were about 20 commercial plantations in all, totalling some 5,000 acres (2,000 hectares). The oldest dated from 1978, but the median age was 3-4 years. The planting of improved seed began only in 1984, so most sites have extremely variable plants. In some areas the plants survived the worst drought in Australia’s history.
Despite these early developments, the Director-General of Agriculture for the state of New South Wales recently warned that jojoba is still an experimental crop and that potential investors need substantial financial resources if they are to become involved. One particular hazard is that most parts of Australia get some frost.
Jojoba seems notably promising for regions on the periphery of the huge “wheat belt.” Frost is light there, and it is thought that strains that can tolerate such conditions can be selected.
New Zealand
Adventurous horticulturists have planted a few jojobas in various parts of the North Island for observation.
Hawaii
Jojoba was first introduced to Hawaii in 1973. Richard Bullock and his students at the University of Hawaii grew the plant at various elevations on several islands as a trial. The most successful was at an elevation of 1,800 feet (600 m) on the island of Maui, where the plants thrived; some have set seed well even in their third year. One entrepreneur is now establishing a commercial plantation. The major problem is that the tropical year-round warmth and sunlight causes year-round flowering, which is undesirable in a crop that is to be machine harvested. It is believed that flowering can be controlled using chemical sprays.
Contacts
The following individuals provided information used in this appendix:
Argentina
Ricardo Ayerza, Technical Advisor, La Magdalena, Cerrito 822 – 7 degpiso, (1010)
Buenos Aires
Australia
Thomas R. Lanny, President, Jojoba Association of Australia, 325 Riley
Street, Surry
Hills, New South Wales 2010
A. Lennox C. Davidson, Groundwork Pty. Ltd., P.O. Box 124 City, Canberra, A.C.T.
2601
Robert L. Dunstone, Division of Plant Industry, CSIRO, Canberra, A.C.T.
Michael A. Hawson, Department of Agriculture, Jarrah Road, South Perth, Western
Australia 6151
Brazil
Gladstone Aragao, Universidade Federal do Ceara, Centro de Ciencias
Agrarias, CP
354, Fortaleza, Ceara 60.000
Chile
Waldo Ceron, Facultad de Agronomia, Universidad Catolica de Chile,
Casilla 114 D,
Santiago
Gaston Saint-Jean, Casilla 16055, Santiago 9
Costa Rica
Donald Zeaser, Forestales Asociados S.A., Apartado 146, Moravia
Curacao
M. van Wilpen, Postbox 853, Curacao, Netherlands Antilles
Hawaii, USA
Peter M. Amcotts, International Resource and Development Corporation,
P.O. Box
2364, Honolulu 96804
India
Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Waghawadi Road,
Bhavnagar,
364002 Zanjmer, Gujarat
Department of Botany, University of Jodhpur, Jodhpur, Rajasthan
H. G. Singh, Assistant Plant Pathologist, Agriculture Research Station, Durgapura,
Jaipur-302015
National Botanical Research Institute, Rana, Pratap Marg, Lucknow 226001
Israel
Yair Inov, Negev Jojoba Co.,P.O.B. 1831, Tel-Aviv 61000
Italy
Giovanni Mignoni, AgipPetroli, Via Laurentina, 449, 00142 Roma
Mexico
Fernando Lubbert A., Guadalupe Victoria y Colima No. 10 – Int. 7,
Hermosillo, Sonora
Xicotencatl Murrieta, Secretaria de Desarrollo Urbano y Ecologia, Apdo.
Postal A-068,
Hermosillo, Sonora
Paraguay
Julio G. Spinzi, National Commission for Chaco Development, Edificio
Colon I Torre
2 deg piso, Oficina Colon Entre Paraguay Independiente Benjamin
Constant, Asuncion
Senegal
Claude R. Bailly, Departement de Recherches Forestieres et
Hydrobiologiques, Institute
Senegalais de Recherches Agricoles (ISRA), B.P. 2312, Dakar-Hann
South Africa
Keith Pulvermacher, 14 Hugon Road, Claremont 7700
Spain
Antonio Garcia, Departamento Nacional de Olivicultura y Elaiotecnia,
Cordoba
Sudan
Mohamed M. A. Khairi, Department of Horticulture, Ministry of
Agriculture, Khartoum
Mahdi Osman El Mardi, Department of Horticulture, Khartoum
Tanzania
Eric Derrickson, P.O. Box 1545, Dar es Salaam
Turkey
Sami Dinkoglu, Ozler Cadsi Kristal Palas, Kat I No. 16, Adana
Zimbabwe
William R. Mills, 28 York Avenue, Highlands, Harare
Appendix B
Sources for More Information
The best source of continuing information on jojoba is Jojoba Happenings, the official publication of the Jojoba Growers Association. Published bimonthly, this newspaper provides not only information on the latest jojoba developments but also editorials, literature reviews, and advertisements for organizations selling such things as seed, oil, equipment, and land. The annual subscription is $15; $3 per copy. Available from 805 North Fourth Avenue, Suite 404, Phoenix, Arizona 85003, USA. Phone: (602) 253-5470.
Associations
The Jojoba Growers Association is a nonprofit organization of growers, processors, researchers, and suppliers promoting the advancement of the jojoba industry. It holds conferences and symposia and distributes jojoba information, including a membership directory ($10), reprints of a feature article on jojoba from the Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society ($3), and this report. The address is: 3320 East Shea Boulevard, Suite 290, Phoenix, Arizona 85028, USA. Phone: (602) 996-4563.
Other associations devoted to jojoba include:
· The International Jojoba Association, c/o Wm Howard O’Brien, 4350 East Camelback Road, Phoenix, Arizona 85018, USA
· The Jojoba Society of America, c/o T. K. Miwa, 2086 East La Jolla Drive, Tempe, Arizona 85282, USA
· Jojoba Association of Australia, 325 Riley Street, Surry Hills, New South Wales 2010, Australia
· Latin America Association for Jojoba, c/o Ricardo Ayerza, La Magdalena, Cerrito 822 – 7° piso, (1010) Buenos Aires, Argentina
· Texas Jojoba Growers Association, c/o Fred Jordan, 3616 Howell, Dallas, Texas 75204, USA
Literature Services
Jojoba literature is indexed and entered into the AGRICOLA data base (National Agricultural Library). AGRICOLA is available from the Dialog and SDC Orbit System computer database vendors.
The Office of Arid Lands Studies at the University of Arizona (845 North Park Avenue, Tucson, Arizona 85719, USA) maintains a comprehensive collection of jojoba literature, and will provide photocopies of any jojoba-related article. (The cost, in mid-1985, is U.S. 10 cents per page.)
Conference Reports
The proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Jojoba and its Uses (held in Beer-Sheva, Israel, October 1984) are being prepared. This book will contain more than 50 papers and will be the most up-to-date detailed account of many aspects of jojoba, from agronomy to acne control. (To order, contact J. Wisniak, Department of Chemical Engineering, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev,P.O. Box 653, Beer-Sheva, 84105, Israel.)
Haase, Edward F. and McGinnies, William G., eds. 1972. Jojoba and Its Uses – An International Conference, University of Arizona, June 1972. Available from the Office of Arid Lands Studies, University of Arizona, 845 North Park Avenue, Tucson, Arizona 85719, USA. 81 pages.
Elias-Cesnik, Anna, ed. Jojoba and Its Uses Through 1982. Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Jojoba and Its Uses, October 11-15, 1982, Tucson, Arizona. Available from the Office of Arid Lands Studies, University of Arizona.
Bibliographies
Jojoba: Guide to the Literature. 1982. Office of Arid Lands Studies, University of Arizona, Tucson. This 232-page document is a comprehensive guide to the literature on jojoba. It includes: an annotated bibliography citing jojoba-specific research works; a selected bibliography of historical, ethnobotanical, and early taxonomic and systematic literature; a key word index; and full botanical illustrations of the jojoba plant.
This book is available from the Office of Arid Lands Studies for $15 (for air parcel post add $3 Canada/Mexico, or $7 overseas; Arizona residents must add 4 percent sales tax).
All 600 articles in Jojoba: Guide to the Literature are being put on microfiche. Copies of the roughly 1,000 microfiche cards (containing 50,000 pages of text) will be available for purchase from Office of Arid Lands Studies. (Expected availability, September 1985.)
Books and Journal Articles
General Reviews
Haumann, B. F. 1983. Jojoba: First harvest of cultivated plantations bringing desert crop closer to widespread commercial use. Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society 60(1):44-58. Reprints available from Jojoba Crowers Association.
Mignoni, G. 1985. La Jojoba. Edagricole, (Via Emilia Levante, 31-Bologna, Italy) 133 pp. (A glossy, large-format book in Italian; contains dozens of color photographs, drawings, diagrams, and maps. Author’s address: AgipPetroli, Via Laurentina, 449, 00142 Roma, Italy.)
Natural History
Gentry, H.S. 1958. The natural history of jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis) and its cultural aspects. Economic Botany 12(3):261.
Agronomy
Hogan, L. 1979. Jojoba: A new crop for arid regions. Pp. 177-205 in New Agricultural Crops, G. A. Ritchie, ed. AAAS Selected Symposium 38. Westview Press, Boulder Colorado, USA.
Hogan, L., D. A. Palzkill, and R. E. Dennis. 1981. Production of Jojoba in Arizona. Agricultural Experiment Station Cooperative Extension Service Publication No. 81132. College of Agriculture, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA. 12 pp.
Benge, M. D., ed. 1983. Jojoba: A promising new crop for arid lands. Technical series #14. Available from: S&T/FNR Agro-forestation, Rm. 515D, SA-18, Agency for International Development, Washington, D.C. 20523, USA.
Chemistry
Miwa, T. K., ed. 1980. Jojoba. Volume 1. Fundamental and Applied Research Communications, Notes, Reviews. Jojoba Plantation Products, Inc., Los Angeles, California, USA. 318 pp. (Available from the author at 2086 East La Jolla Drive, Tempe, Arizona 85282, USA.)
Wisniak, J. 1977. Jojoba oil and derivatives. Pp. 167-218 in Progress in the Chemistry of Fats and other Lipids R. T., Holman, ed. Pergamon Press, Oxford, Great Britain.
Wisniak, J. In press. Chemistry and technology of jojoba oil: State of the art. Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Jojoba and Its Uses, 1984. Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel.
Lubricants
Estefan, R. M. 1983. Jojoba as a Possible Lubricant. Paper presented at 74th Annual meeting of the American Oil Chemists’ Society, Chicago, Illinois, May 8-12, 1983. (Available from author, Southwest Research Institute, 6220 Culebra Road, San Antonio, Texas 78284, USA.)
Miwa, T. K. and J. A. Rothfus. 1978. In-depth comparison of sulfurized jojoba and sperm whale oils as extreme-pressure/extreme-temperate lubricants. Pp. 243-267 in Proceedings 3rd International Conference on Jojoba, D. M. Yermanos, ed. University of California, Riverside, California.
Cosmetics
Brown, J. H. 1984. Jojoba. A report on the current status of the jojoba industry including a discussion of several new derivatives that should be of interest to cosmetic formulators. HAPPI, October 1984. Copies available from the author, c/o Jojoba Growers and Processors, Inc., 2267 South Coconino Drive, Apache Junction, Arizona 85220, USA.
Cadicamo, P. and J. Cadicamo. 1982. A study of jojoba oil, its derivatives and other cosmetic oils. Cosmetics and Toiletry 97(2):67-70.
Cadicamo, P. and J. Cadicamo. 1983. A second study of jojoba oil, its derivatives and other cosmetic oils. Soap, Cosmetics, and Chemical Specialties 59(6):36-38.
Libby, H., R. H. Purdy, R. L. Realina, and T. A. Lutgo. In press. Cosmetics based on jojoba oil: I. Oxidation stability. Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Jojoba and Its Uses, 1984. Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel.
Shani, A. 1983. Jojoba oil and some of its derivatives in cosmetic health products. Soap, Cosmetics, and Chemical Specialties 59(7):42 & 44.
Taguchi, M. In press. Test results on safety of jojoba alcohol for cosmetic use. Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Jojoba and Its Uses, 1984. Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel.
Dermatology
McClatchey, K. 1982. In-vitro antimicrobial effects of jojoba oil. Pp. 289-298 in Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Jojoba Oil, Hermosillo, Mexico.
McClatchey, K. 1982. Percutaneous absorption of jojoba oil. Pp. 278-288 in Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Jojoba Oil, Hermosillo, Mexico.
Mosovich, B. In press. Treatment of acne and psoriasis. Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Jojoba and Its Uses, 1984. Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel.
Yaron, A., A. Benzioni, 1. More, and A. Meshorer. In press. Physiological effects of jojoba oil in laboratory animals. Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Jojoba and Its Uses, 1984. Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel.
Antifoam
Pathak, S. G., R. F. de Philipps, R. M. Kerwin, L. L. Hepler, W. Tien, and H. E. Album. 1978. Jojoba oil as an antifoam agent in antibiotic fermentation. Pp. 285-290 in La Jojoba. Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia, Insurgentes Sur 1677, Z.P. 20, D. F. Mexico City, Mexico.
Food
Bizzi, A., M. Cini, and U. Bracco. In press. Absorption and distribution of jojoba oil after oral administration to rats. Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Jojoba and Its Uses, 1984. Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel.
Decombaz, J., C. Heise, and K. Anantharaman. In press. Nutritional investigations on jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis) oil. Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Jojoba and Its Uses, 1984. (See above.)
Wax
Miwa, T. K. 1978. Hardness test for wax formulations from jojoba wax, paraffin, polythylene, and polypropylene. Pp. 265-274 in La Jojoba. Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia, Insurgentes Sur 1677, Z.P. 20, D. F. Mexico City, Mexico.
Detoxification of Seed Meal
Storey, R., N. Bower, C. V. Lovejoy, and R. Taggart. 1982. Analysis of selected nutritional and anti-nutritional factors in jojoba seed from the United States and Mexico. Pp. 21-31 in Jojoba and Its Uses Through 1982, Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference, Anna Elias-Cesnik, ed. University of Arizona, Tucson,
Verbiscar, J. A. and T. A. Banigan. 1982. Jojoba meal as a livestock feed. Pp. 267-280 in Jojoba and Its Uses Through 1982, Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference, Anna Elias-Cesnik, ed. University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona.
Weber, C. W., J. W. Berry, and E. M. Cook. 1982. Influence of jojoba meal upon growth and reproduction in mice. Pp. 93-99 in Jojoba and Its Uses Through 1982, Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference, Anna Elias-Cesnik, ed. University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona.
Jojoba in the United States
Yermanos, D. M. 1979. Jojoba – a crop whose time has come. California Agriculture 33(718):4-11.
Yermanos, D. M. 1982. Performance of jojoba under cultivation between 1973-1982: Information developed at the University of California, Riverside. Pp. 197-211 in Jojoba and Its Uses Through 1982, Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference, Anna Elias-Cesnik, ed. University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona.
Jojoba in Australia
Davidson, S. 1983. Jojoba: cautious optimism. Rural Research 119:21-25.
Hawson, M. C. 1984. Jojoba in Western Australia. Department of Agriculture, Perth, Western Australia.
Jojoba in Latin America
Aragao, R. G. M. and D. C. Monteiro. 1982. A culture da jojoba no Nordeste do Brasil. Banco do Nordeste do Brasil S.A., Rua Senador Pompeu, 590, 60.000, Fortaleza, Ceara, Brasil.
Ayerza, R. 1984. La Jojoba. Editorial Hemisferio sur S.A. Buenos Aires, Argentina. 224 pp. (Copies available from author at La Magdalena, Cerrito 822 – 7 deg piso, (1010) Buenos Aires, Argentina.)
Appendix C
Contributors to the Study
Peter M. Amcotts, International Research and Development Corporation, P.O. Box 2364, Honolulu, Hawaii 96804, USA
Steve Anderson, Cargill Corporation. P.O. Box 9300, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55440, USA
Gladstone Aragao, Universidade Federal do Ceara, Centro de Ciencias Agrarias, CP 354, Fortaleza, Ceara 60.000, Brazil
Ricardo Ayerza, Technical Advisor, La Magdalena, Cerrito 822 – 7° piso, (1010) Buenos Aires, Argentina
Arne Belsby, Jojoba Enterprises, Inc., P.O. Box 396, Desert Center, California 92239, USA
Hanoch Benajahu, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, P.O. Box 653, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel
Taye Bezuneh, Department of Plant Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA
Aliza Benzioni, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, P.O. Box 653, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel
Eliott Birnbaum, Institute of Applied Research, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, P.O. Box 1025, Beer-Sheva 84110, Israel
Hugh Bollinger, Director, NPI, Inc., 417 Wakara Way, Salt Lake City, Utah 84108, USA
U. Bracco, Nestle Products Technical Assistance Company, Case Postale 88, CH-1814 La Tour de Peilz, Switzerland
James H. Brown, Jojoba Growers and Processors Inc., 2267 South Coconino Drive, Apache Junction, Arizona 85220, USA
Waldo Ceron, Facultad de Agronomia, Universidad Catolica de Chile, Casilla 114 D, Santiago, Chile
A. Lennox C. Davidson, Groundwork Pty. Ltd., P.O. Box 124 City, Canberra, A.C.T. 2601, Australia
Jacques Decombaz, Research Department, Nestle, Case Postale 88, CH-1814 La Tour de Peilz, Switzerland
Robert L. Dunstone, Division of Plant Industry, CSIRO, Canberra, Australia
Kelley Dwyer, Executive Director, Jojoba Growers and Processors Inc., 2267 South Coconino Drive, Apache Junction, Arizona 85220. USA
Gordon Fisher, Agrifuture Inc., 3651 Pegasus Drive, Suite 101, Bakersfield, California 93308, USA
William Feldman, Director, Boyce Thompson Southwestern Arboretum, P.O. Box AB, Superior, Arizona 85273, USA
Meir Forti, Institute of Applied Research, Ben-Curion University of the Negev, P.O. Box 1025, Beer-Sheva 84110, Israel
Howard Scott Gentry, Gentry Experimental Farm, 37100 Los Alamos Road, Murrieta, California 92362, USA.
R. Guidoux, Research Department, Nestec Ltd., CH-1800 Vevey, Switzerland
Sir Rupert Hamer, Jojoba Management Limited, Southport, Queensland, Australia
LeMoyne Hogan, Plant Sciences Department, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA
Yair Inov, Negev Jojoba Co., P.O.B. 1831, Tel-Aviv 61000, Israel
Amram (Ron) Kadish, Agricultural Consultant, AG Associates, 1980 Hobart Drive, Camarillo, California 93010, USA
Lawrence R. Knowles, Southwest Jojoba Company, 4325 West Shaw Avenue, Fresno, California 93711, USA
Phillip S. Landis, Glassboro State College, Glassboro, New Jersey 08028, USA
Thomas R. Lanny, President, Jojoba Association of Australia, 325 Riley Street, Surry Hills, New South Wales 2010, Australia
Chi Won Lee, Department of Plant Sciences, University of Arizona,Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA
Henry Libby, Libby Laboratories Inc., 1700 Sixth Street, Berkeley, California 94710, USA
Lourdes A. Lizarrage, (CICTUS) University of Sonora, Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico
Fernando Lubbert A., Guadalupe Victoria y Colima No. 10 – Int. 7, Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico
Cyrus McKell, Vice President, Research, NPI, Inc., 417 Wakara Way, Salt Lake City, Utah 84108, USA
Kenneth D. McLatchey, Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-0010, USA
Roland A. Manolo, So-Cal Jojoba, 891 Navajo Drive, Riverside, California 92507, USA
William P. Miller, Amerind Agrotech Laboratory, Sacaton, Arizona 85247, USA
Kay Mirocha, Office of Arid Lands Studies, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85719, USA
Thomas Miwa, 2086 East La Jolla Drive, Tempe, Arizona 85282, USA
Bernardo Mosovich, Soroka Medical Center, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel
Walter B. Mors, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Dept. de Bioquimica, ZC32, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
B. Thomas Morring, Indio, California 92201, USA
Daniel A. Murray, Jojoba Plantation Partners, Santa Paula, California 93060, USA
Xicotencatl Murrieta, Secretaria de Desarrollo Urbano y Ecologia, Apdo. Postal A-068, Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico
Karl J. Niklas, Department of Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, 14853, USA
William H. O’Brien, O’Brien Industries, 4350 East Camelback Road, Phoenix, Arizona 85018, USA
David A. Palzkill, Plant Sciences Department, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA
S. G. Pathak, Fermenta Products, Inc., West Chester, Pennsylvania 19382, USA
Bernard Pompeo, President, Frank B. Ross Co., Inc., P.O. Box 4085, Jersey City, New Jersey 07304-0085, USA
Ralph L. Price, Department of Nutrition and Food Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA
Hal C. Purcell, McVay Jojoba Co., 142 Front Street, Avila Beach, California 93424, USA
Steve Reddy, Plant Science Department, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA
Rudolf Schmid, Department of Botany, University of California, Berkeley, California, 94720, USA
Arnon Shani, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, P.O. Box 653, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel
Lee St. Lawrence, 388 London Road, Deal, Kent CT14 9PR, England
Rolf Stalder, Research Department, Nestec Ltd., CH-1800 Vevey, Switzerland
Robert Stryker, P.O. Box 1535, Florence, Arizona 85232, USA
Masayuki Taguchi, Koei-Perfumery Company, Ltd., Tokyo, Japan
Robert F. Thorne, Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden, Claremont, California 91711, USA
Anthony J. Verbiscar, President, Anver Bioscience Design, Inc., 160 East Monticito Avenue, Sierra Madre, California 91024, USA
Carole Ann Whittaker, President, The Jojoba Growers Association, 3320 East Shea Boulevard, Suite 290, Phoenix, Arizona 85003, USA
Jaime Wisniak, Department of Chemical Engineering’ Ben-Gurion
University of the Negev, P.O. Box 653, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel
Demetrios M. Yermanos, Department of Agronomy, University of California, Riverside, California (deceased)
Mohamed H. Younez, Tenneco West’ P.O. Box 9380, Bakersfield, California 93309, USA
Donald Zeaser, Forestales Asociados S.A., Apartado 146, Moravia, Costa Rica
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Jojoba: A Promising New Crop – Part 1
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Source: Jojoba: New Crop for Arid Lands, New raw Material for Industry
Topics: Agri-Business, Crops & Vegetables | 2 Comments »
September 22nd, 2010 at 1:35 pm
Is there a jojoba plantation in the Philippines?
October 28th, 2010 at 5:15 pm
Where can I get hold of seeds or seedlings?