Micro Irrigation
By goGreen | June 30, 2012
Conventional irrigation systems, such as channel irrigation and wild flooding tend to waste water as large quantities are supplied to the field in one go, most of which just flows over the crop and runs away without being taken up by the plants.Micro irrigation is an approach to irrigation that keeps the water demand to a minimum. It has been driven by commercial farmers in arid regions of the United States of America and Israel in farming areas where water is scarce.
Typically, these commercial irrigation systems consist of a surface or buried pipe distribution network using emitters supplying water directly to the soil at regular intervals along the pipework. They can be permanent or portable.
Many parts of the world are now using micro irrigation technology. The systems used by large commercial companies are generally quite complex with an emphasis on reducing the amount of labor involved. Small-scale framers in developing countries have been reluctant to take up micro irrigation methods due to the initial investment required for the equipment.
A number of organizations have looked at ways to simplify and reduce the cost of micro irrigation resulting in the approaches of drip irrigation and pipe irrigation. For these small-scale irrigation systems not only should the technical aspects of the system be considered such as:
- access to reliable water sources
- a secure and well-fenced garden
- basic gardening skills
- the crops grown
The social aspects should also be of concern to ensure the irrigation system will be of benefit. The social and economical factors will include:
- capital and financial management;
- credit facilities the availability of external services
- maintenance
- market opportunities for the produce willingness to show other farmers the technology
Drip Irrigation
Drip irrigation uses low-cost plastic pipes laid on the ground to irrigate vegetables, field crops and orchards. This technology was developed in the 1960s for commercial use. Circa 1990 a US firm called Chapin Watermatics developed a low-cost system called bucket kits, which use standard plastic buckets and lengths of hose that could be cut to the appropriate lengths.
Small holes in the hose allow water to drip out and keep the base of the plant wet without wasting any water. The kits are low-cost, easy to assemble and manage. They do not need high quality water, providing the water is filtered. A 20 liter bucket with 30 meter (100 feet) of hose or drip tape connected to the bottom. The bucket is placed at least 1 meter (3 feet) above the ground so that gravity provides sufficient water pressure to ensure even watering for the entire crop. Water is poured into the bucket twice daily and passes through a filter, fills the drip tape and is evenly distributed to 100 watering points. The multi-chambered plastic drip tape is engineered to dispense water through openings spaced at 30cm (12 inches).
Two bucket kits costing around $20 will produce enough vegetables for a family of seven and can last over five years. The system is most suited to kitchen gardens. As well as the bucket, you will need several strong poles, tools, manure, water and vegetable seedlings. The poles are used to make a support structure for the bucket. The stand should hold the bucket about 1 meter above the ground.
The main stages of setting up the system are:
- a hole should be cut carefully into the base of the bucket
- the hole is fitted with the filter plug and tubing and then flushed out to ensure that the system is clean.
- the drip lines are then connected and the system is flushed out again before the ends of the drip lines are closed off.
The whole procedure of setting up the system will only take about one hour, including the construction of the bucket support.
When planting a seedling is planted at each wet spot so that all the moisture is absorbed directly by the plant roots.
Moving the kit from plot to plot tends not to be very practical and damages the equipment. It is better to add extra buckets and lines when necessary or when funds are available to invest in additional equipment.
The advantages are:
- the effort to water the plants is greatly reduced
- the time taken to fill the containers is significantly less than manually watering the planted area
- the growth of weeds is reduced as water does not reach unwanted plants.
Some initial training is required to show how to get the best results from the system and careful attention should be taken to a number of common problems that occur with the system comprising of:
- clogging of the trip tapes. Especially if water is not well filtered. The emitters can be cleaned by blowing dirt out and then flushing out the particles with clean water.
- leakage at connections should be checked and corrected
- weeding must avoid puncturing the tape
- vermin can cause damage as they look for water
- potential theft of equipment
The bucket kit is the smallest type of drip irrigation available. Although productivity is increased providing greater food security and improved nutrition, the amount of water and labor saved is small. Often there is not sufficient surplus produce for users to sell and provide financial benefits.
Bigger containers can be used to suit larger market gardens. Large customized drum kits irrigating a high-value crop offer greatest financial impact.
A research project on Affordable Micro Irrigation Technology (AMIT) was conducted by Intermediate Technology Consultants (ITC) and International Development Enterprises (IDE) in India and Zimbabwe. The looked at the constraints to adoption of low-cost, improved, drip irrigation technologies by poor farmers. The findings are available on ITC’s website.
In East Africa drip irrigation has been promoted by ITDG East Africa and the Arid Land Information Network (ALIN) who sell drip irrigation kits similar to the ones used in India and Zimbabwe.
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Fish Preservation and Processing
By goGreen | June 29, 2012
The purpose of processing and preserving fish is to get fish to an ultimate consumer in good, usable condition. The steps necessary to accomplish this begin before the fishing expedition starts, and do not end until the fish is eaten or processed into oil, meal, or a feed. Fish begins to spoil as soon as it is caught, perhaps even before it is taken out of the water. Therefore, the key to delivering a high quality product is close attention to small details throughout the entire process of preparation, catching, landing, handling, storage, and transport.
Fish that becomes spoiled or putrid is obviously unusable. Fish that is poorly cared for may not be so obviously bad, but it loses value because of off-flavors, mushy texture, or bad color that discourage a potential purchaser from buying. If customers have bought one bad fish, they probably won’t buy another. On the other hand, if you consistently deliver good quality at a fair price, people will become loyal customers.
Spoilage proceeds as a series of complex enzymatic bacterial and chemical changes that begin when the fish is netted or hooked. This process begins as soon as the fish dies. The rate of spoilage is accelerated in warm climates. The fish’s gut is a rich source of enzymes that allow the living fish to digest its food. Once the fish is dead, these enzymes begin digesting the stomach itself. Eventually the enzymes migrate into the fish flesh and digest it too. This is why the fish becomes soft and the smell of the fish becomes more noticeable.
There are countless bacteria naturally present on the skin of the fish, in the gills, and in the intestines. Normally, these bacteria are not harmful to a living fish. Shortly after death, however, they begin to multiply, and after two to four days they ingest the flesh of even a well-iced fish as enzymatic digestion begins to soften it. The bacterial load carried by a fish depends on its health, its environment, and on the way it was caught. Healthy fish, from clean water, will keep better than fish dragged along the bottom of a dirty pond in a trawl net.
Both enzymatic digestion and bacterial decomposition involve chemical changes that cause the familiar odors of spoilage. Oxygen also reacts chemically with oil to cause rancid odors and taste. The aim of fish processing and preservation is to slow down or prevent this enzymatic, bacterial, and chemical deterioration, and to maintain the fish flesh in a condition as near as possible to that of fresh fish.
Whenever fish must be kept for several hours or longer before being consumed, they must be treated in some way to prevent spoiling. These are the basic means for preserving fish:
- Cooling and icing
- Salting and pickling
- Pastes and sauces
- Canning and bottling
- Air drying and smoking
- Kiln drying
The basic task of every fishery is to get the catch to the consumer in good, usable condition. The first fish caught were probably eaten raw, on the spot. Communities grew up near enough to productive fishing grounds so the fish could be consumed the day it was caught. The earliest preserved fish was probably accidentally overcooked, and some observant fisherman saw that dry cooked fish kept for a period of time without spoiling. Traditionally, air drying, salting, and smoking (or some combination of these three) preserved fish for the short periods required by the fishermen. Fish preserved in these ways is often tough and stringy, the quantities produced are small, and success is uncertain. Few people will eat fish preserved this way, if they have an alternative. Over time, other, better methods of preservation came into being.
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Cultivating Vegetables —Create a Peace Garden
By goGreen | June 29, 2012
A peace garden is an area anywhere near your home, where you can grow fruit and vegetables. Vegetable beds the size of a door each are ideal. You should plant at least four beds of vegetables and as many more as you need and can handle, in rotation. To start, decide on the types of vegetables you would like to grow, such as potatoes, cabbages, carrots, beans, peas and tomatoes, to give variety and balance to your diet. It is best to plant only a few seeds at a time, so that you do not have a surplus of one kind. If you do grow extras, how about selling them?
How to prepare your peace garden
- Mark out the area of each bed, for example the shape of a door frame, approximately 1 m x 2 m, and leave space between each bed so that you will be able to work with ease.
- Dig the soil over, removing stones and weeds. Especially where water is scarce, deep digging to make a trench at least 50 cm (knee deep) is important. The first soil that is dug out, the topsoil, must be kept apart as it is the best.
When filling the trench, place solid rubbish such as tins, eggshells,
bones, wood and paper at the bottom to assist in drainage. Then proceed with alternating layers of soil and organic material such as grass, weeds, small branches and leaves. Lastly add the topsoil that you kept apart. The seed will be planted in this layer. The organic material layers act like a sponge holding moisture to a good depth.
- Stones can be used to make a border.
- If you have any manure or compost, dig it into the topsoil. Leave the beds like this for a week.
- Water well before planting and allow the soil to drain until it can be worked without becoming muddy.
Planting the seed
- Decide which seeds you wish to plant, for example:
- Three rows of carrots 30 cm apart—plant the seeds 2 to 5 cm apart in the rows, 1 cm deep and cover with soil.
- Three rows of beetroot 30 cm apart—plant the seeds at the same spacing but 2 cm deep and cover with soil.
- Potatoes in a separate bed 60 cm apart—plant seed potatoes that are beginning to sprout 20 cm apart, 10 cm deep and cover with soil. When the potato plants are 30 cm tall, ridge the soil up around them. The potatoes will develop in the ridged-up soil.
It is best to have at least four separate beds. This will ensure that you have vegetables all year round if monthly sowings are done
- Write labels for the rows of crops that you have planted. You can even put up a sign which says, “My peace garden”!
- Take note of the useful hints that are printed on your seed packets.
- Once you have planted all the seeds, press the soil down firmly over the planting rows and water lightly. You can make your own watering can by punching holes in the bottom of a tin or a 2-litre cooldrink bottle.
Put up a fence
Fence off your vegetable garden to prevent animals and children from walking across the beds. Orange or onion pockets cut open and sewn together make a good fence if supported on a stout framework of sticks.
If you can put a fence around your peace garden, how about growing a granadilla creeper on it? It will provide protection, colour and fruit for the family.
Fertilize the soil
Your plants will need fertile soil to grow well. Soil that is fertile is rich in nutrients. As crops are harvested you will need to replace the nutrients that have been removed. These nutrients are replaced by applying fertiliser. There are different sources of fertiliser, namely:
- Organic fertilizers such as manure and compost, which may be used liberally and are generally inexpensive.
- Chemical fertilisers which must be purchased. A good general-purpose fertiliser is 2-3-2 applied at one tablespoon per square meter before planting. You can use only organic fertilizer or a combination of organic and chemical fertilizers. If you use both, rather use organic fertilizer for leaf crops and chemical ones for the others.
Plant a fruit tree
If you want to plant a fruit tree, the best to try is a peach tree. There are many varieties but ask for one suited to your area. Dig a hole 1 m x 1 m and 1 m deep. Put a few old chopped-up plastic containers, tins and other solid rubbish at the bottom of the hole. Add compost or manure liberally and return the soil that was taken out. Fill with water.
Cut the plastic bag off the tree and then plant it so that the top of the soil round the tree is level with the ground. Stamp round the base to make it firm. Water again. You may need to fasten the tree to a strong stick so that it does not get blown over by wind or pushed over by animals.
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Upland Rice Cultivation with Agroforestry
By goGreen | June 28, 2012
Wherever possible, introduce hedgerow strips of tree legumes every 6-7 m of about 1 m deep to provide green-leaf fertilizer for upland rice. Suggested tree legumes are Kakawati, Cassia spectabilis or ipil-ipil. Select a rice variety with a growth season well within the rainfall duration. The variety should mature by the time rainfall recedes.
Sow the rice seeds at the onset of the rain. A rainfall of 55-60 mm is desirable to ensure uniform and adequate plant population. Planting can be done either by broadcasting, dibbling, hilling or drilling.
- The land is prepared moist or dry. A modified broadcasting method is done by furrowing a harrowed field with a lithao. Seeds are broadcast uniformly and then a peg-toothed harow, kalmot is used to pass diagonally across the furrows.
- Thorough land preparation can effectively control weed population during the rice vegetative stage. Plow the field and leave it for a week to allow weeds to germinate. Harrow the field twice. Allow weed seeds to germinate. Then harrow for the third time to incorporate the weeds into the soil.
When hedgerows of tree legumes are tall, prune to hedges and leave the branches on the strips to allow leaves to decompose. Keep the field free from weeds for about 40-60 days after emergence to minimize yield losses. Competition for light, nutrients and soil moisture begins early.
- Hand-weeding is done if seeds were broadcast.
However, in modified broadcasting or row planting, mechanical weeding using a hoe can be done.
- In slopey areas where plowing is not possible, the use of crop residues as mulch can help control weed growth.
The leaves of legumes serve as fertilizer. If there is a large amount of biomass applied into the field at pruning time, it is not necessary to put chemical fertilizers. Using a legume-cereal rotation can also help improve fertility.
Pest control can be done as the need arises.
Integrated pest management (IPM) is highly recommended. As soon as the grains are ripe (about 80-85 percent is mature), harvest the crop. Increase productivity by intercropping and crop rotation. Legumes planted with rice or planted before or after rice can substantially improve yields with reduced external inputs.
CROPPING POSSIBILITIES
OPTION 1
FIG. 1. Start of the season
Plant alternating 2-3 rows of upland rice with a row of bush-type legume (preferably a short maturing one). About 16-20 kg legume and 50 kg of upland rice is needed to plant a hectare.
FIG. 1. Two months after
When the rice is at its late vegetative stage, the legume is harvested. The space occupied by the legume can be planted to corn or other crops like cassava or vegetables.
FIG. 1. Four to five months after
After the rice harvest, plant a short-duration legume crop where the rice was planted. If the field is free from weeds, the legume seed can be drilled or dibbled. Or, plant lablab or velvet bean following upland rice.
FIG. 1. Towards the dry months
Plant legumes that cover the soil during the dry season. Good potential cover crops include rice bean, batao and velvet bean.
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Fiber Crops and Technologies
By goGreen | June 28, 2012
Salago (Wikstroemia species) is a slowgrowing native shrub in Eastern Asia. At present, it is classified as a forest crop based on its ability to become a very sturdy plant which can withstand long drought, rainy season Asia. At present, it is classified as a forest crop based on its ability to become a very sturdy plant which can withstand long drought, rainy season and typhoons. It grows to a height ranging from one to three meters. The leaves are opposite, leathery, widest near the middle, rounded at the tips and 1.5 to 7 cm. Iong. The best is light colored and has a silky appearance and long strong fibers.
Salago is mostly found in thickets as well as in primary and secondary forests at low and medium altitudes. Thus, it is a good agroforestry crop and a good material for hedgerow planting.
Salago is popularly known in the Visayas as Siapo. The fiber was discovered by the Japanese as an excellent material in the manufacture of money, bank notes, stencils, ad paper and documentary papers. It is also used for rope-making, fishing lines and nets, clotheslines, sacks, wallets, colorful hats and others.
Propagation
Salago is normally propagated through its seeds.
However, its seeds cannot be stored for a long time because it is a recalcitrant. Seed germination is done through the following steps:
- Prepare two seedboxes four inches thick, two feet wide and eight feet long. Use a 50 percent limesoil and 50 percent sand mixture,
- Sterilize the soil by pouring boiling water twice over it before sowing the seeds. Seeds usually germinate from 15-20 days after sowing.
- Salago seeds could also be sown directly on the farm with comparable results to the above
Care of seedlings and planting
To minimize the effect of transfer shock and root injury, seedlings should be planted in individual plastic bags when the first pair of leaves appear.
Seedlings could be transplanted to the field when they are between two to four months old. With a spacing of 1 × 1 meters, 10,000 plants can be accommodated in one hectare. The best time for planting salago is at the beginning of the rainy season.
Maintenance
FIDA (Fiber Industry Development Authority) recommends optional use of commercial fertilizer. In fact, areas recommended for salago planting are those which have fumed less productive (e.g., cogonal areas).
Do ring weeding and underbrushing twice a year, especially during the early stage of growth of the plant. Being relatively resistant to pests and diseases, salago may not need pesticide spraying.
Seed extraction
After six to eight months from planting, salago begins to bear fruits or berries. Thereafter, it will bear fruits once a year from October to November. Seed collection will start on December to early January, that is about 30-35 days from flowering. Berries are considered mature when it turns red or yellow.
To prepare viable seeds, put gathered berries in a basin and thoroughly squeeze them until the seeds are separated from the pulp. Rinse with water. Seeds that sink are viable ones while those that float are rejected by draining the water.
To store seeds without losing their viability, dry them properly by spreading them on any fat container under the sun for six to eight hours. If sowing is to be done in a day or two, two to four hours drying would suffice.
Fiber extraction
Fiber extraction is done either by “handcleaning” or “steaming” method.
“Handcleaning” is done by directly peeling off the bark as soon as the outermost epidermis (thin portion) is scraped out by using a knife. This method of fiber extraction produces white fiber. However, the fiber could not be stored for a longer period due to its susceptibility to mold attack.
FIG. 1. Handcleaning method.
“Steaming” process is done by subjecting the whole stem of salago to steam for about two hours in a big container. The stem must not touch the water, hence a support for the stem must be provided to avoid staining. The container has to be covered properly while the water level is maintained at three inches. To produce good quality fiber, the outermost dead bark or meristematic cells are removed thoroughly.
This literature aims only to guide agroforestry technicians in their search for appropriate materials to be planted in their project areas. For more information, please contact Fiber Industry Development Authority – Region Vll, S.L. Tanchan Building, Colon St., Cebu City or Ecosystem Research and Development Bureau (ERDB), College, Laguna 4031.
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Root Crops for Food, Feed and Income
By goGreen | June 27, 2012
WHY ROOT CROPS?
Can grow over a wide range of soil and climatic conditions.- The leaves can also be used as foods/feeds (except for arrowroot).
- Easy to grow, good staple and easy to prepare as food.
- Planting material does not compete as food source (except for ubi/tugui).
- Long-harvest duration. Produce can stay in the ground long without much decline in quality.
- Availability of simple processing technologies provided for increase crop value and decreased risk of crop perishability of production surplus.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF SITE REQUIREMENTS AND PRODUCTION PRACTICES OF FIVE MAJOR ROOT CROPS
CASSAVA
Manihot esculenta
Kamoteng-kahoy, kalibre, balinghoy
Soil Requirement
- Sandy to clay good internal drainage
Light Requirement
- Full sunlight, yield reduced by shading
Water Requirement
- At least 1000 mm/season with less later in the season
Land Preparation
- Conventional, 1 to 2 plowing and harrowing
Planting Materials
- At least 8 mo old, 20-30 cm long with 5 nodes or more and free from pests
Time for Planting Onset of the rainy season
Planting Method
- Singly, vertically buds up, 113 below the ground on the ridge
Spacing
- 60-100 cm between rows and between hills
- Weed Control
Combination of hand weeding and cultivation during the first two months of growth. Hill-up 2 months after planting.
Harvesting
- Depends on need/situation but optimum time is about 10 most Harvest only the amount that can be used/disposed within 3 days.
Shelf-life
- Can last for one week if basal part of root is not injured
Cropping Systems
- Should be rotated with other crops like legumes/cereals. Can also be intercropped.
Special Features
- Cut the plant about knee high under storm signal #2 and plants more than 1 m in height. Old plants can be rejuvenated by pruning and allowing regrowth. These also serve as live fence for corn and upland rice (tribal practice).
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Microlivestock: Turkey
By goGreen | June 27, 2012
The turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) is well-known in North America and Europe, but in the rest of the world, especially in developing countries, its potential has been largely overlooked. Partly, this is because chickens are so familiar and grow so well that there seems no reason to consider any other poultry. Partly, it is because modern turkeys have been so highly bred for intensive production that the resulting birds are inappropriate for home production.
Nevertheless, there is a much wider potential role for turkeys in the future. There are types that thrive as village birds or as scavengers, but these are little known even to turkey specialists. These primitive types are probably the least studied of all domestic fowl; little effort has been directed at increasing their productivity under free-ranging conditions. However, they retain their ancestral self-reliance and are widely used by farmers in Mexico. That they are unrecognized elsewhere is a serious oversight.
Native to North America, the turkey was domesticated by Indians about 400 BC, and today’s Mexican birds seem to be direct descendants.’ Unlike the large-breasted, modern commercial varieties, they mate naturally and they retain colored feathers and a narrow breast configuration. Their persistence in Mexico after 500 years of competition with other poultry highlights their adaptability, ruggedness, and usefulness to people.
These birds complement chicken production. They are able to thrive under more arid conditions, they tolerate heat better, they range farther, and they have higher quality meat. Also, the percentage of edible meat is much greater than that from a chicken. Turkey meat is so low in fat that in the United States, at least, it is making strong inroads into markets that previously used chicken exclusively.
Turkeys are natural foragers and can be kept as scavengers. Indeed, they thrive best where they can rove about, feeding on seeds, fresh grass, other herbage, and insects. As long as drinking water is available, they will return to their roost in the evening.
Appreciation for the turkey could rise rapidly. Interest already has been shown by several African nations. A French company has created a strain of self-reliant farm turkeys and is exporting them to developing countries.2 Researchers in Mexico are displaying increased interest in their national resource. And as knowledge and breeding stock continue to be developed, it is likely that village turkeys will become increasingly popular around the world.
AREA OF POTENTIAL USE
Worldwide.
APPEARANCE AND SIZE
Modern turkey breeding has been so dominated by selection for increased size and muscling that commercial turkeys have leg problems and cannot mate naturally (they are inseminated artificially). These highly bred birds are adapted for large-volume intensive production, and must be raised with care. As noted, this chapter emphasizes the more self-reliant, less highly selected turkeys found in Mexico and a few other Latin American countries. They do not require artificial insemination, and with little attention can care for themselves and their young.
Fully grown “criollo” turkeys of Mexico are less than half the size of some improved strains. Males weigh between 5 and 8 kg; females, between 3 and 4 kg.3 They vary in color from white, through splashed or mottled, to black. The skin of the neck and head is bare, rough, warty, and blue and red in color. A soft fleshy protuberance at the forehead (the snood) resembles a finger. In males it swells during courtship. The front of the neck is a pendant wattle. A bundle of long, coarse bristles (the beard) stands out prominently from the center of the breast.
DISTRIBUTION
The unimproved domestic turkey is essentially limited to central Mexico and scattered locations throughout nearby Latin American countries. Some village birds are also kept in India, Egypt, and other areas, but these are descended from semi-improved strains exported from North America and Europe in earlier times. Generally speaking, few turkeys are found in tropical countries outside Latin America.
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Cultivating Subtropical Crops: Coffee
By goGreen | June 26, 2012
Temperature
The optimum temperature range for coffee in South Africa is 26 °C (mean maximum), 32 °C (absolute maximum) and 12 °C (mean minimum) 4 °C (absolute minimum). Although this crop can tolerate temperatures well outside this range, excessive temperature variation usually affects the crop and the coffee bush detrimentally. Coffee cannot tolerate frost and should be planted well above the frost line. The effect of frost can be minimised by planting on broad ridges and by mulching.
Altitude
The optimum range is between 900 to 1 200 m.
Humidity
A minumum humidity (14:00) of 40 % must be maintained during the warmest months.
Rainfall
Coffee is sensitive to water shortages and adequate well distributed precipitation of about 1 500 mm/year should occur. Rainfall also influences flowering and coffee should therefore be produced in areas with adequate spring rains. A dry period during winter (June–August) is important for flowering.
Wind
High winds have a negative effect on growth because it increases evapotranspiration and causes tree breakage.
Nurseries
Arabica coffee is essentially grown as seedlings. No or very few plants are clonally produced, i.e. either via tissue culture laboratories or cuttings.
- Seed must be obtained from registered growers.
- Old seed germinates very poorly and care should be taken that seed of 3 months or younger is used.
- Between 1,5 and 2 kg of seed should be sufficient to establish 1 hectare.
- Minimum bag or sleeve size should be 150 x 250 mm.
- The nursery site must be well away from frosty areas.
- Use only well-sterilised potting mixtures. Well-drained sandy loam mixes are preferred.
- If not commercially available, potting mixtures can be made as follows:
- wheelbarrow of topsoil
- 2 shovels of well-composted manure
- 1 tin (440 g) of single superphosphate
- 1 tin compound fertiliser
- apply lime if pH is too low—pH should be 5,5 to 6.
- Broadspectrum granular insecticides could be incorporated into the mixture to protect seedlings against certain root pests.
- Seed should be planted not deeper than 6 mm with the centre cut facing downwards.
- Cover lightly with mulch and monitor frequently.
- Fresh seed takes 8 weeks to germinate.
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Cultivating Sub-tropical Crops: Pepper
By goGreen | June 26, 2012
Pepper is a tropical plant that grows in hot humid areas with a high rainfall. Locally it can only be grown in the Lowveld and along the northern coastal areas of KwaZulu-Natal.
Botanical characteristics
- The pepper plant is an evergreen perennial. It attaches itself to trees or trellises by means of aerial roots and is not a parasitic plant.
- The leaves are oblong, pointed at the tip and arranged alternately.
- Pepper plants have a shallow root system. There are usually a few major lateral roots that can penetrate the soil to a depth of 2 m.
- The white flowers are minute and mainly hermaphroditic (both sexes in one flower). The flowers converge in oblong spikes which later form clusters.
- The pepper plant has 3 types of runners:
- the main stem (primary runner) forms the permanent stem from which other runners develop.
- the secondary runners are round, long shoots with lengthy internodes. They climb to a considerable height and later droop downwards.
- tertiary runners are short, sturdier branches that spread horizontally from the axis of primary and secondary runners.
• Flowers and clusters always develop opposite a leaf and only on tertiary wood.
• Fruit: round berries, 4 to 10 mm in diameter and converge in oblong clusters. Each berry has a single spherical seed of 3 to 6 mm, encapsuled by the fruit flesh.
Climatic and soil requirements
- Pepper is a tropical plant and cannot tolerate frost. It will not grow where the temperature drops below 12 °C. A moderate winter climate is essential.
- Pepper plants need about 2 000 mm rain annually. In South Africa the rainfall must be supplemented by irrigation.
- The soil should have a good structure and water-holding capacity. Drainage must be good to prevent root rot.
- The pH should be 5,5 to 6,0.
- The red dolerite soils of KwaZulu-Natal and the red andesite soils of the Soutpansberg are best for growing pepper plants.
- A high humus content is advantageous.
Propagation
- Propagation is usually by means of cuttings.
- One or two-leaf cuttings are taken only from secondary runners during September.
- Cuttings are rooted in mistbeds and transplanted into the land after 9 months.
Spacing
- Spacing between the rows is 3 m and between the plants 2 m, which gives 1 666 plants/ha.
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Reason of Goats and Sheeps Disease
By goGreen | June 25, 2012
Disease can have various causes. Some of these causes are germs such as bacteria, viruses and fungi. The following is a list of situations that could result in sheep/goats becoming sick.
Dirty surroundings
- Keeping sheep/goats in a dirty kraal could result in them eating or drinking food or water contaminated with droppings. These
droppings may contain micro-organisms (germs) that could make the animals sick. - Try to clean out kraals where possible. Remove manure
regularly.
Poor condition
- If your sheep/goats are in poor condition or if you are not feeding them well they can become sick easily.
- Supplement sheep/goats’ rations with extra feed during winter and remember that pregnant ewes/does need more food to produce healthy lambs/kids.
Stress
- Stress plays an important role in causing disease. Animals tend to get sick
if they are very stressed. Overcrowding, underfeeding, transportation and management procedures such as tail docking, castration, eartagging and shearing cause stress. - Try to reduce stress by treating the animals in a relaxed manner. Avoid overcrowding. Make sure they have adequate food. If you are transporting them, make sure they have enough water, that they do not become too hot/too cold and also do not load too many sheep/goats on one truck.
Not vaccinating animals
- Vaccinating sheep/goats against diseases that occur frequently in your area can help to prevent certain diseases. It is usually more economical to vaccinate your animals than to treat or put down sick animals.
- If ewes/does are not vaccinated before giving birth they will not be able to pass on protection to their young via their milk. This could result in some lambs/kids becoming very sick a few days or weeks after being born. It is also very important to vaccinate ewes/does against tetanus because then the lambs/kids will also be protected against this disease.
- Obtain veterinary help to decide what vaccines to use and when to use them.
Lambs/kids not suckling enough
- In order for the lambs/kids to receive enough protection they should be allowed to suckle as
much as possible from their mothers, especially in the first few days. - Allow the ewes/does to stay with their lambs/kids for the first few days after giving birth. If you have extensive grazing try to keep the lambs/kids with their mothers at night so that they may be allowed to suckle.
Not checking new animals
- Buying sheep/goats to replace or increase your flock without checking them carefully could bring all kinds of diseases onto your farm.
- Make sure that you buy from a dealer you can trust and check the sheep/goat properly to ensure that it has no diseases. If you are unsure about what to look for, ask your local animal health technician or veterinarian for help.
Eartagging, tail docking and castration
- These practices are used by most small-stock farmers in the management scheme for their lambs/kids. Care must be taken during these operations to prevent lambs/kids from becoming sick. They may even get tetanus which is a serious disease in lambs/kids and could result in death.
- Therefore, keep the wound areas clean and check them regularly. Use a wound/antiseptic powder if necessary. Vaccinate ewes and does against tetanus. Always boil your instruments, such as knives, for at least 15 minutes before you use them on your animals. Boil the instruments again if they become dirty while you are using them and before you continue to use them.
Worms
- When sheep have a high number of worms they are usually not productive and tend to lose weight. This can also put them at risk of getting diseases.
- If you notice signs of worm infestation such as weight loss, diarrhoea or paleness of the eyes and gums then you should deworm your animals. Make sure you use the correct remedy. If you see no improvement after deworming, consult your local animal health technician or veterinarian.
Ticks and mites
- Ticks and mites can cause many problems in the case of sheep/goats. Ticks can spread diseases such as heartwater. Certain ticks can cause paralysis and they also damage the wool and skin. Mites cause mange. This disease leads to high production losses for farmers through loss of wool and damage to skins.
- Treat your sheep/goats for ticks and mites. Try to follow a programme for strategic dipping.
Toxic plants
- Some plants are toxic (poisonous) to sheep/goats. These plants can cause many different signs such as diarrhoea, losing the skin on the face (photosensitivity), liver problems and even heart and lung problems. Sheep/goats will usually eat these plants when there is
nothing else to eat. - Make sure that your sheep/goats have enough food. Some types of toxic plants can be removed. Ask your veterinarian or animal health technician for advice on which plants in your area are toxic.
SOURCE: Directorate Communication, Department of Agriculture in cooperation with ARC-Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute
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